Mass extinctions—moments in Earth’s history when a significant proportion of species become extinct over a short span of geologic time—are unusual. Paleontologists recognize only five such intervals of major dying in the Phanerozoic1, 2 (the last 542 million years of Earth’s history during which the fossil record is richest). There is debate among scientists both over whether these five mass extinction are truly exceptional3 and how many mass extinctions have occurred in Earth’s history.4 However, the fact that contemporary extinction rates are as much as 120,000 times higher than the normal or background rate5 qualifies the modern era as an episode of mass extinction potentially rivaling that at the end of the Cretaceous Period, when non-avian dinosaurs became extinct6-8. In our paper “Press-Pulse: A General Theory of Mass Extinction?” we concluded that the mass extinctions observed in Earth’s past required the coincidence of “press” (long term stress) and “pulse” (short term disturbance) events9. Yet if a combination of press and pulse mechanisms is required to generate a mass extinction, what accounts for the current biodiversity crisis? And how will understanding today’s presses and pulses help us to develop a better conservation policy?

The Press-Pulse Model of Mass Extinction

The case of Harris v. McRae (1980) was filed by Cora McRae, a pregnant woman on Medicaid. In requesting for federal funding for her abortion through Medicaid, she came up against the Hyde Amendment, which was passed in 1976 to forbid federal funding of abortions except when the mother’s life was in danger. Federal funding later expanded to fund the abortion if the pregnancy was a result of rape or incest, applicable only when the rape or incest is reported in a timely manner. McRae alleged that the Hyde Amendment violated her right to privacy, the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, and the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment. “It is the appellee’s view that the Hyde Amendment violates the Establishment Clause because it incorporates into law the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church concerning the sinfulness of abortion and the time at which life commences.”1

In the case of Harris v. McRae, the outcome of the case was affected by the religious morals and political ideals of the Supreme Court Justices who voted with the majority. This is made clear by their interpretations of Roe v. Wade (1973) (the original case prohibiting the government from denying abortions under the Right to Privacy) and the Hyde Amendment (1976). Thus, the political and religious beliefs of the justices pervaded their votes, affecting the laws and the legal system of the United States of America.

We cannot, when the nation becomes fully civilized and very rich, continue to be civilized and rich unless the nation shows more foresight than we are showing at this moment 1

- President Theodore Roosevelt

 

Since the release of the Oscar-winning documentary An Inconvenient Truth, the environmental movement in America has become reenergized. No longer can politicians ignore the nation’s energy supply and environment. In the past year, there has been a 20% increase in the retail cost of gasoline;2 this has become the top issue for many American households and businesses. This issue, along with the growing threat of climate change, has spurred the debate in Washington over how the nation’s energy and climate crisis may be dealt with. The United States is heavily reliant on sources of energy, whether they are derived from electricity, natural gas, or oil. The cost of providing energy is an issue that is vital to the nation’s economic security. Thus, environmentalism can no longer be considered a liberal issue; what is happening today affects every American and should be considered a moderate issue.

The youth of a nation determines its future. Therefore, it is in a country’s best interest to properly educate its children from an early age. This makes education one of the most critical public policy issues that face governments, and the United States is obviously no exception. A country as prominent as the U.S. should guarantee a quality education for all of its citizens. Unfortunately, a right to education is not listed in the Bill of Rights, although local, state, and federal governments have tried, with varying levels of success, to ensure at least some education for its people. What changes, if any, should be made to existing U.S. education policy in order to better provide for our children’s (and the nation’s) future?

I. History of Education in the U.S.

When Lyndon Johnson ascended to the Presidency in November of 1963, he made civil rights and education two of his top priorities in his War on Poverty campaign.1 Demonstrating his commitment, President Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) into law in 1965, which was the first and largest comprehensive federal education law. It provided substantial monetary funds for kindergarten through twelfth grade education.2 According to Johnson, “[n]o law I have signed or will ever sign means more to the future of America.”3

President Johnson hoped that the Elementary and Secondary Education Act would narrow the inequality in education that was caused by both economic and social factors. This new law mandated desegregation, adding teeth to the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown a decade earlier. Enforcement of this law meant that it would only be a matter of time until schools were fully integrated. On April 11, 1965, without attaching a single amendment, the Senate approved the ESEA.